Finance and Growth Strategies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Finance and Growth Strategies - Assignment Example The internal rate of return is the cost of capital that will equate the present value of future cash flows to zero. In other words, it is the required rate of return which will yield a zero NPV. Thus, equation 1 can be modified such that NPV is replaced by 0. NPV calculations can be done manually but the process is tedious as it requires calculating the NPV by using different values of cost of capital. Another is the use of software like Microsoft Excel to generate a more accurate figure. The decision about whether the project should be accepted or not will be based on the results of the financial and strategic analyses using techniques like NPV and IRR. In using NPV as a tool, the general rule is to accept projects or investments which generates a positive NPV while rejecting those which yields negative NPV. The result of the NPV has a direct implication on the value of IRR relative to the required rate of return. Accordingly, a project is pursued if the IRR is equal to or higher than the required rate of return. In contrast, a project with a lower IRR than the cost of capital is turned down. It should be noted that a positive NPV is indicative of an IRR which is higher than the required rate of return. Â  Accordingly, a project is pursued if the IRR is equal to or higher than the required rate of return. In contrast, a project with a lower IRR than the cost of capital is turned down. It should be noted that a positive NPV is indicative of an IRR which is higher than the required rate of return. The project considered by Fujisawa, which is the expansion of its product line should be accepted based on the quantitative analyses using NPV and IRR techniques. The investment yields a relatively high NPV of 9,235,200. The IRR of 33.996% is very high compared to the required rate of return of 9%. Thus, Fujisawa will reap higher benefits than its capital outlay in the proposed project. However, it should also be noted that quantitative analyses are often not enough in ascertaining whether an investment should be pursued or not. Though expansion of the product is quantitatively profitable, qualitative factors like consumer demand and others should also be taken into account. Â  

American Antislavery 1820-1860 Essay Example for Free

American Antislavery 1820-1860 Essay Rather, the movement was fraught with ambiguity over who its leaders would be, how they would go about fighting the institution of slavery, and what the future would be like for black Americans. Some of the persisting goals of antislavery activism were legal emancipation, aid to runaway slaves through vigilance groups and the Underground Railroad, civil rights for freed blacks in the north, and education, suffrage, and economic advancement for African-Americans. Perhaps the most unifying ideal of the  anti-slavery movement  was that the racial basis forAmerican slavery  could be undermined by promoting Christian values, education and economic progress among free blacks to show that they were capable of succeeding as individuals in an integrated American society. Richard Allen, leader of the A. M. E. church, stated the case for black progress as an answer to the justifications of slaveholders: â€Å"if we are lazy and idol, the enemies of freedom plead it as a cause why we ought not to be free. In addition to the connection between abolition and economic and social progress, most abolitionists worked for the assurance of civil rights and legal protection for free blacks, who lived in an anomalous condition of â€Å"freedom† without citizenship and with constant threat of discrimination, violence, and abduction to be sold into slavery. There were some bitter conflicts over specific strategies. Though Garrison and most blacks favored immediate abolition, many whites continued to prefer or express willingness to settle for gradual emancipation. Violent resistance was at first rejected by many, again under the influence of Garrison, but David Walker’s appeal that violence should be used against slavery became more popular as blacks and abolitionists searched for an effective means of self-defense against mobs and pursuit of civil rights. Whether or not individuals worked within the political framework of the constitution to effect change again depended on allegiance to Garrison, and in general the early antislavery activists preferred moral arguments while later leaders were more willing to use political means. To what extent black abolitionists cooperated with and trusted white abolitionists varied, for though whites were essential to the movement, blacks often felt they needed to rely on their own race’s leadership, and so both black and integrated organizations formed. A few abolitionists supported the proposal of African or Haitian colonization by free blacks, but most viewed the colonization schemes as a way for whites to get rid of the â€Å"black problem† in the US rather than a viable alternative to gaining equal rights in the nation of their birth (since only a small minority of blacks in the US after the 1820s were African-born). Furthermore, colonization reinforced the notion that African-Americans would be better off somewhere else because they could never be integrated into American society as whites’ equals. Blacks saw similarities between Jackson’s Indian removal policy and federal funding for African colonization, and most determined to resist relocation. Settlement in Canada was not similarly viewed as running away from the struggle for equality at home because it not only provided safety, legal protection, and civil equality for black refugees but also harbored the founders of new abolitionist publications who strengthened the antislavery movement in the American North and Midwest. Leaders of the anti-slavery movement were well known for their publications and speeches, and many served the equally important but less public role of organizers or â€Å"conductors† on the Underground Railroad. The assortment of leaders included free blacks, like William Still in Philadelphia, radical whites, like William Lloyd Garrison, former slaves, like Frederick Douglass, and women of both races, such as Sojourner Truth and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Garrison’s anti-political, non-violent moral opposition to slavery was the largest sect of antislavery agitation for many years, but his unwillingness to work within the political system to reclaim the constitution and his allegiance to women’s rights were controversial positions that caused many, including Douglass, to split with Garrison eventually. Many whites who were identified with the antislavery cause, such as Stowe, did not extend their sympathies for enslaved blacks as far as supporting equal rights for freedmen. Though generally considered radicals, few leaders of the antislavery movement committed large-scale revolutionary or violent acts. Quiet small-scale acts of resistance termed â€Å"the Underground Railroad† gave way to more violent public resistance in the 1850s, particularly in â€Å"radical† centers like Boston, against the recapturing of fugitive slaves who lived as free blacks in the northern states. A later martyr for the cause of abolitionism, John Brown, was one of the few who were brave (or insensible) enough to direct violent action against the federal government with hopes to end slavery through militancy in his raid on Harper’s Ferry in 1859. Blacks and whites who rallied behind the unified cause of abolitionism did not always cooperate fully, sometimes because their goals differed, but often because blacks were wary of whites. As the Hortons summarize, â€Å"white reformers were more likely to accept a gradualist approach to anti-slavery, and blacks sometimes faced discrimination or subtle prejudice in integrated organizations† (Hortons 222). Racism of various forms existed among white antislavery reformers, who often felt that slavery was a moral wrong but nonetheless thought blacks inferior to whites or distasteful to associate with. Harriet Beecher Stowe notes this phenomenon in her creation of the character Miss Ophelia for Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Like many white northerners who object to the institution of slavery, Miss Ophelia sees the education and moral improvement of blacks as a Christian duty that whites owe to the race they have long enslaved, but does not see that the â€Å"spiritual equality† of blacks and whites implies social equality and is uncomfortable with physical contact with her black charge. In addition to direct racism, white reformers often harbored a more subtle condescension when they â€Å"credited their work with blacks as broadening their views and stimulating personal growth,† as if the movement was more about the moral development of white individuals through their acts of charity than about seeing justice enacted in fulfillment of the Constitution’s claim that all men are created equal (Horton 224). Despite these tensions and overwhelming white paternalism, whites â€Å"brought financial power, reformist zeal, and the respectability of heir color† to the movement and were â€Å"instrumental in opening higher education to African Americans on an equal basis† which bolstered the educated black leadership of the 1840s and 50s (Horton 236, 215). Many short-lived organizations, some comprised solely of blacks and others integrated, competed to some extent for support, and allied themselves with different causes. There were a few longer-la sting organizations, such as the American Anti-Slavery Society and the National Convention of the People of Color, and publications such as the Freedman’s Journal and the Colored American, that were highly influential. Discounting one convention’s endorsement of the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Liberty Party was the only political party that embraced an antislavery platform. Garrisonian opposition to recognizing the Constitution and working within the existing political system, termed â€Å"union with slaveholders,† detracted from potential early antislavery political organization, favoring moral arguments which proved largely ineffective for provoking large-scale change. Between the period of the 1820s through the eve of the civil war, and particularly during the 1850s, the antislavery movement grew in response to political developments and increasing sympathy to abolitionist propaganda. Federal victories for slavery such as the expansion of slavery in the west, the Fugitive slave law of 1850, and the Dred Scott decision of 1857 threatened blacks and white northerners alike as they represented the power of the slaveholding south to influence federal policy. In nine Northern states, where twenty years before towns had passed regulations against integrated schools and where racism persisted to some extent, Personal Liberty Laws passed which essentially nullified the federal Fugitive Slave Law, evincing that states’ rights to reject complicity with slavery was more widely supported than black equality. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, slave narratives, and other popular publications aroused many white northerners’ sympathies. The alliances forged between antislavery agitation and other political and social reform movements garnered support for the anti-slavery cause among moderates. Over time, as hopes of gradual emancipation and an end to racism soured in light of the political and social realities, many shifted from adherence to Garrisonian apolitical non-violence to a widespread sentiment, especially among blacks, in favor of David Walker’s appeal for the use of violence in defense and in opposition to slavery. Resistance to enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law included groups rescuing blacks from jails, like the case of Shadrach in Boston in 1852. Whites and blacks alike worked for black suffrage, and the blacks who cast votes in the 1860 presidential election overwhelmingly voted for the Republican candidate Lincoln, a departure from the call for Garrisonian disunion by blacks like Charles Lenox Remond. Blacks in the North formed militias, including Boston’s Massasoit Guard, without state governmental sanction. On the eve of the Civil War, blacks were ready to engage in a federal struggle for freedom, a new revolution that would grant them the equality promised to all men in the Constitution that was now nearly a century old. The decades leading up to the south’s secession had taught blacks that patience and diligence in educating themselves and working to acquire land and social status was far from achieving the end of slavery or earning them equal citizenship. White northerners who were not necessarily proponents of black civil rights often supported the antislavery cause in order to counter the seeming growing influence of Southern slave power. Secession lit the fuel of 40 years of antislavery agitation and began a war that some would say was waged for union, but most blacks and many whites insisted that the coming war would be the final struggle for universal freedom.

Importance of Monera :: essays papers

Importance of Monera a)Production of food: cheese, yogurt, vinegar, wine, sour cream, etc. b)Industry : cleaning up petroleum, remove waste products from the water, synthesize drugs and chemicals. Symbiosis : The interdependence of different species, which are sometimes called symbionts. There are three main types of symbiosis, based upon the specific relationship between the species involved: mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism. Symbiosis that results in mutual benefit to the interdependent organisms is commonly known as mutualism. An example of mutualism is the coexistence of certain species of algae and fungi that together compose lichens. Their close association enables them to live in extreme environments, nourished only by light, air, and minerals. Living separately, the alga and fungus would not survive in such conditions. In parasitism, also known as antagonistic symbiosis, one organism receives no benefits and is often injured while supplying nutrients or shelter for the other organism. Parasites include viruses and bacteria that cause many diseases; certain protozoans that can infect plants and animals; tapeworms and flukes that infest the intestinal tracks and internal organs of animals. The type of symbiosis known as commensalism is a food-sharing association between two different kinds of nonparasitic animals, called commensals, that is harmless to both and in many cases is mutually advantageous. Many commensals are free to separate. Other commensals function together so completely that they cannot separate. They do not harm each other. An example is a polyp found in deep water off the coast of Newfoundland. It attaches itself to the shell of a certain species of hermit crab and, by budding, covers the entire shell with a colony that dissolves the original shell. Because the colony grows at the same rate as the crab, it furnishes continuous protection, and the crab does not shed its shell at periodic intervals as it normally would. The polyp, in turn, benefits by moving about with the crab, thereby obtaining a greater food supply than it would if attached to a stationary object. Uses of Bacteria in the Environment : Bacteria feed on dying material and convert it back into basic substances. This process of decomposition is as significant as photosynthesis, for without it food chains would cease, and fallen trees, leaves, and other refuse would simply pile up. Bacteria also strongly influence the movement of key elements, such as sulfur, iron, phosphorus, and carbon, around the globe. The weathering of rocks, which releases elements back into life systems for use, is substantially enhanced by the breakdown processes of bacteria. Uses of Bacteria in Sewage Disposal : The main cleansing agents in sewage treatment are a variety of specialized bacteria that convert,

Misconceptions About Mrs. Hammond in Rebecca Rushs Novel Kelroy :: Rebecca Rush Kelroy Essays

Misconceptions About Mrs. Hammond in Rebecca Rush's Novel Kelroy Most people that read Kelroy incorrectly view Mrs. Hammond. She is labeled an evil person who is out for her own gain. Most people doubt that she even cares about her daughters Lucy and Emily. Mrs. Hammond is said to be vicious and sneaky, and will do whatever is necessary to accomplish her agenda. They believe Mrs. Hammond is so greedy she will sacrifice her own daughters' happiness so she can live out the rest of her life comfortably. These are all misconceptions of Mrs. Hammond. Mrs. Hammond is not the loathsome enemy in this novel. The enemy in this novel is society itself for allowing Mrs. Hammond's actions in this story toward her daughters and Kelroy to be largely viewed as acceptable behavior. Mrs. Hammond is not a saint. Some of her actions were abhorrent. "She (Mrs. Hammond) was a woman of fascinating manners, strong prejudices, boundless ambition." (Page 3) Mrs. Hammond had good manners. According to her society, she was a proper lady. She also had strong prejudices and boundless ambitions, and these are her qualities that create this evil persona placed on Mrs. Hammond. Mrs. Hammond has a strong temper. On page 102, Mrs. Hammond has a dialogue with the grocer. The grocer is trying to collect money for the food that Mrs. Hammond has received from his grocery. "I don't believe it," cried Mrs. Hammond, "for it is an impossibility that my family could have consumed articles to this amount." (Page 102) Mrs. Hammond speaks harshly toward this grocer for doing his job. "Charles, who knew that the slightest liberty taken by a person not altogether agreeable to her, was sometimes enough to irritate Mrs. Hammond." (Page 141) The people around Mrs. Hammond reco gnized her temper. A great number of people have tempers. Tempers do not make them bad people. Mrs. Hammond's boundless ambition comes into play with Kelroy and Emily. Mrs. Hammond wants the absolute best for Emily, and she truly believes that her plan for Emily to marry a man in the upper class is best for Emily's life. Mrs. Hammond's ambition forced her to try to stop Emily and Kelroy's relationship.

Auditing of Educational Institutions

INTRODUCTION;2 DEFINITIONS3 Auditing3 Financial statements:4 Educational institutions4 FINANCIAL AUDITING:5 Objectives of auditing:5 Primary objects6 Subsidiary objects:6 General Principles Governing an Audit of Financial Statements6 Qualities of an auditor:7 Types of audit:7 Statutory audits:7 Private audits7 Internal audits:7 Required procedures:8 Auditors report:9 AUDITING OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS9 INTRODUCTION:9 Background of auditing educational institutions:9 Reasons and purposes of auditing school accounts:10 Expectations of the schools’ accounts auditor:12 Types of auditing13 Internal auditing14 External auditing:15 Records and books of accounts for external auditing. 17 Audit report21 CONCLUSION22 Reference23 INTRODUCTION Since schools are public agencies, their raising and spending of money must be reviewed on a yearly and needs basis. This paper reviews auditing in educational institutions and specifically Kenyan Educational institutions. The paper starts by giving detailed definitions of key words which are essential in the discussion of auditing. However, a background to financial auditing is first discussed to give an insight on the same. Areas of general auditing covered include: need of auditing, objectives and general principles of auditing, qualities of an auditor, required procedures and the auditor’s report. Having discussed auditing in general, the paper goes further to discuss auditing in educational institutions and starts by giving a background to the same, reasons and purposes of auditing school accounts, expectations of the school accounts auditor, types of school auditing, records and books of accounts used for auditing and finally the audit report. DEFINITIONS Auditing The Auditing Practices Board (APB), (2002), defines audit of financial statements as an exercise whose objective is to enable auditors to express an opinion whether the financial statements give a true and fair (or equivalent) of the entity’s affairs at the periods and of its profit or loss or income and expenditure for the period then ended and have been properly prepared in accordance with the applicable reporting framework. for example relevant legislation and applicable accounting standards ) or where statutory or other specific requirements prescribe the term present fairly. Okumbe (1998), states that auditing deals with the investigation of the financial records of an educational organization in order to ascertain the objectivity and accuracy of the financial statements. Okumbe further suggest that auditing is an activity which appraises the accuracy and completeness of the accounting system applied by the educational organization. According to Milli champ. A (2006), auditing is an activity carried on by the auditors when he verifies accounting data determines the accuracy and the reliability of accounting statements and reports and then reports upon his efforts. Millichamp asserts that, it is an activity carried out by an independent person with the aim of reporting on the truth and fairness of financial statement. Wango (2007) defines auditing as the assessment of accounting records and procedures of a business or government unit by a trained accountant for the purpose of verifying the accuracy and ompleteness of records. Wango illustrates that auditors generally want to determine whether the correct procedures are followed and whether embezzlement or other illegal activity occurred. Nyongesa (2007) defines auditing as a systematic method of determining whether or not school funds and property have been used in a proper way. According to him, audits are proposals of school finances and property practices and records. Auditing therefor e is a detailed study of the control of books and accounts such as subsidiary records. The study determines legality, accuracy, accounting and application of how school funds for example, have been utilized. This paper will however adopt a definition given in a UNESCO report of 2007, thus, auditing refers to a process whereby all accounts of the school are examined and evaluated in detail by a competent auditor in order to determine and report on the financial standing of the school for the period under review. Financial statements: According to business dictionary. om:financial management refers to the planning, directing ,monitoring organizing and controlling of monetary resources of an organization Educational institutions Thesaurus defines educational institutions as organizations dedicated to education Financial Auditing: According to Millichamp (2006), the problem which has always existed when managers’ report to owners is: can the owners believe the financial report. This is because the report may contain errors, not disclose fraud, be inadvertently misle ading, be deliberately misleading, fail to disclose relevant information or fail to conform to regulations. Millichamp suggests that the solution to this problem of credibility in reports and accounts lies in appointing an independent person called an auditor to investigate the report and report on his findings. In general, published accounts are required to confirm to the accounting standards. Part of the auditors’ duties is to assess whether or not the financial statements he is auditing do comply in general and in detail with the accounting standards. Auditing is carried out by accountants in public practice. Accountancy is a profession and professions have certain characteristics including an ethical code and rules of conduct. Objectives of auditing: The auditor should be an independent person who is appointed to investigate the organization, its records and the financial statements prepared from them and thus form an opinion on the accuracy and correctness of financial statements. The primary objective of an audit is to enable the auditor to say that these accounts show a true and fair view or of course to say that they don’t. The main objects of an audit according to Millichamp (2006) can thus be categorized as below: Primary objects To produce a report by the auditor of his opinion of the truth and fairness of financial statements, so that any person reading and using the m can have belief in them. The auditor gives his opinion on those financial statements taken as a whole and thereby to produce reasonable assurance that the financial statements give a true and fair view (where relevant) and have been prepared in accordance with the relevant accounting or other requirements. Subsidiary objects: * To detect errors and fraud. * To prevent errors and fraud by deterrent and moral effect of the audit. To provide a spin-off effects General Principles Governing an Audit of Financial Statements The financial statements audited under international standards iv are the balance sheets, income statements and cash flow statements VI and the notes thereto. The first International Standard on Auditing, ISA 1 (Subject matter Number 200) vii, discusses the principles governing an audit of financial statements: a) ISA 200 (1) st ates that an auditor could comply with the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants issued by IFAC. ) ISA 200 further states that the auditor should conduct an audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. c) The term â€Å"scope of an audit† refers to the audit procedures deemed necessary in the circumstances to achieve the objective of the audit. d) An audit in accordance with ISAs is designed to provide reasonable assurance. e) There are certain inherent limitations in an audit that affect the auditor’s ability to detect material misstatements. f) The audit of the financial statements does not relieve management of its responsibilities. Qualities of an auditor: Auditors being professionals are expected to uphold certain qualities. Some of these qualities according to Millichamp (2006) include: independence, competence, and integrity. Types of audit: Statutory audits: These are audits carried out because the law requires them Private audits These are conducted by independent auditors because the owners desire it and not because the law requires it. Internal audits: These are conducted by an employee of an organization or an outside contractor into any aspects of its affairs. It is an independent appraisal function established by the management of an organization for the review of the internal control system as a service to the organization. Required procedures: Before commencing any professional work, an accountant /auditor should agree in writing the precise scope and nature of work to be undertaken. This is done through the medium of an engagement letter. The letter serves the following purposes: * Defining clearly the extent of the auditor’s responsibilities. Minimizing misunderstanding between the auditor and the client. * Confirming in writing verbal arrangement. * Confirming acceptance by the audit of his engagement. * Informing and educating the client. On agreement the auditor observes the following procedures: * Background research * Preparation of the audit plan * Accounting system review substantive testing * Analytical review techniques * Analytical review of financial statements * Preparation and signing of report. Auditors report: At the end of his report when the auditor has examined the organization, its records and its financial statements, the auditor produces a report addressed to the owners in which he expresses his opinion of the truth and fairness and sometimes other aspects of the financial statements. The auditor in his report says that in his opinion, the financial statements show a true and fair view. The reader or user will know from his knowledge of audit whether or not to rely on the auditors’ opinion. If the auditor is known to be independent, honest and competent then his opinion will be relied AUDITING OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS INTRODUCTION: Having looked at financial auditing, this section of the paper will now focus on auditing of educational institutions. A detailed background of auditing in educational institutions will be discussed, reasons and purpose, expectations of the school accounts auditor, types of auditing which can/are practiced, records and books of accounts used for audit purposes in schools and finally the schools’ audit report. Background of auditing educational institutions: According to Rajeev (2005), education has turned into a big business now. Apart from the government controlled schools, colleges, institutes and universities , the entry of private sector into these areas have provided not only new opportunities to the chartered accountants who are in service ,but have created an altogether new challenge to the chartered accountant who are in practice. Education institutions are very much different from other business organizations and the process of audit of institutions is also very different, from that of other business enterprises. Wango(2007),suggests that financial management is the process of planning and utilization of school funds in an efficient and effective manner and in accordance with regulations and procedures. Wango says that financial management is an indispensable part of school management. Prudent financial management is usually precondition of a good school since the way schools funds are managed largely determined the overall school performance. The school management and the head teacher are responsible for planning, controlling monitoring school finances. The head teacher is the accounting officer in the school. The head teacher and the accountants (school bursar) must be very vigil on school accounts. Given that Primary and Secondary schools are receiving a lot of money from the government, there is certainly going to be greater pressure to be open and transparent. School funds will be more closely monitored and stakeholders including parents will demand even more efficient use of school finances. Reasons and purposes of auditing school accounts: Okumbe (1998), points out that the purpose of auditing is not to uncover mismanagement or embezzlement of the funds. According to him the major objectives however include: i) To determine whether the financial statement made by an educational organization are accurate in both calculations of figures and in applications of the recommended accounting guidelines. i) To determine whether educational organization uses procedures which comply with legal provisions, policies, and procedures stipulated by the ministry of education or the relevant body. i) To identify any operational problems in the accounting procedures used by the educational organization so as to provide remedial recommendations for improvement. iii) To enable the auditor to form a opinion on the accounting of the financial statement prepared by the school for a given period. Nyongesa (2007) notes that the major purpose of auditing is to protect school property and funds as well as the administrators involved in handling s chool property and funds. He further goes ahead to state that, head teachers are solely responsible for the proper use of school property and money. They therefore need to be protected against any improper use of school money and property by themselves or any other personnel in the school. Formerly, the emphasis on school auditing was placed on the discovery of fraud and detection of errors (Knezevich, 1967). Those two functions are least emphasized in modern times because any auditing is viewed as a means of knowing how property are used in schools. According to Nyongesa, the main purpose of auditing in a school is to: * Protect any school official in charge of school property and funds. Show proper and improper use of property and funds. * Verify that all financial accounts have been accurately recorded. * Provide suggestions in improving the school financial system. * Review all the school operations within a fiscal period. According to a UNESCO report (2002), auditing school accounts is the final stage in the process of managing school funds. At the end of each financial or budget period, the school head has a statutory respo nsibility to prepare and present to school financial bodies an audited financial report. This should give a true and fare view of the financial position of the school. The report states that, in many countries, financial accountability is one of the major responsibilities of the school board of governors/directors and the school head. Government statutes usually include sections outlining the financial principles and practices which boards and heads must follow to achieve accountability for the funds they collect and receive to run their schools. The Ministry of Education also issues financial regulations from time to time whereby audited accounts of a given financial period must be submitted to facilitate financial decisions, for example a case of Kenya where there are grants and donations for the running of free education. Finally, auditing helps the head teachers to improve the schools accounting systems thus enhancing their skills in financial management and evaluates his or her performance. Expectations of the schools’ accounts auditor: Qualified auditors are the only ones authorized to examine and verify the books of accounts of any formal organization. They are skilled in the techniques of auditing and they are governed by international professional ethics. Because auditing of school accounts must be done with reasonable care and skill, the auditor must be professionally trained and qualified with an independent mental attitude about the school. He/she must have reputable and known personal qualities which would support his/her opinion about the schools’ financial statement. School boards of governors are corporate bodies and by state they are responsible for engaging auditors through the terms of a formal contract which is binding to both parties. The contract with the auditor must state clearly the tasks expected, the terms of payment and the date when the report must be completed and submitted to the board. The auditor should not have any vested interest in the school and the contract should be between him and the board but not with the school head. A school head teacher has a statutory responsibility to prepare and submit financial statements which give a true and fair view of the financial standing of the school. Types of auditing There are two types of audits operational in the Kenyan school system: internal audit and external audit. Both audits are used in institutions of higher learning, mostly the universities. The external audits are the only audit used in primary, secondary schools and the teacher training colleges. However, a report by UNESCO (2002), states that every educational organization must carry out the two types of auditing for accountability and credibility of their financial statements because they are public agencies. The inspectorate is charged with the responsibility of conducting the auditing process in schools and the teacher training colleges. An approved firm of accountants is charged with that auditing responsibility especially with the university accounts. As far as the inspectorate is concerned, books of accounts should be in the Provincial Director of Education (PDEs’) office by or before 31st January of the ensuing year for auditing. After being audited, these books should be submitted to the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Education (Nyongesa, 2007:133). The types of auditing are thus discussed below: Internal auditing According to Okumbe (1998), there should be an officer whose duty is to perform the tasks of internal auditing. This is because internal auditing enables an organization to appraise the effectiveness of its financial management techniques and control. However, Okumbe asserts that educational managers are expected to be conversant with auditing techniques within the organization so that he/she may help in detecting financial management flaws before it is too late to alleviate them. Nevertheless, some schools are small entities where internal auditing may not be necessary, especially where the accounts staff is competent. In any case, the school head is directly involved to authorizing and approving expenses and signing cheques and the finance committee of the board may inspect and carry out internal control of the funds. UNESCO report (2008), defines internal auditing as a management activity and a service intended to ensure regular and frequent checking on a schools’ financial transactions and records. According to the report, an internal auditor is normally an employee of the school e. g. a deputy head whose main role is to supervise the accounts staff to ensure efficiency in the day to day management of the school finances. Robert (1995), points out that the requirement of multiple signatories for the approval of purchase order constitutes an internal audit of purchasing. The accounting or book keeping department may also perform an audit on the general ledger prior to closing the financial statements at the end of each month. It has been noted that internal auditing is to ensure regular and frequent checking of the financial transactions of the school. A schedule for internal auditing should include and outline the objectives, procedures to be followed the frequency and the methods of communicating or reporting the information to management. An internal audit report should point out areas of weakness and strength in the accounts records and books and draw the attention of management to any irregularities in the transactions. Information from internal auditing must be reliable complete and available on call to enable the head and the board to make quick decisions where necessary. External auditing: Robert et al (1995), defines an external audit as an objective systematic review of resources and operation followed by a written or oral report of findings. According to Robert et al, there are three basic types of external audits namely: the financial compliance audits which address the fairness of presentation of basic financial management in conformity with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP);secondly there is the Program compliance audit which is a review of a local agency (LEA) adherence to the educational and financial requirements of specific finding source and lastly the third type is a performance audit which addresses the economy and efficiency of LEAs. This examines the LEAs internal controls for weaknesses which would expose possible mismanagement or fraud. Okumbe (1998), states that external auditing is performed by agencies from outside the educational organization. The main aim being to ascertain that the organization has complied with the stipulated financial control mechanisms. According to a UNESCO report external auditing is an independent report on the financial performance of the school, in accordance with the terms of the contract agreed with the school. The focus of external auditing is on establishing the truth and fairness of the accounts. It gives added credibility to unaudited financial statements and records of the schools financial transactions and confirms their compliance to the statutes. In most secondary schools in Kenya, an external audit is carried out by the quality and standards officers who are specialized in accounting principles. According to Nyongesa (2007), there are four other audits which the school administrator; particularly the head teacher should understand and use. These are: a)Special audits-these are carried out in case of suspicion ,error, or fraud for example; when the head teacher suspects the school bursar of committing a fraud regarding school fees ,they inform the board of governors which then hires an external auditor to carry out special audit to establish the truth. b) Pre-audits –these occur before budgetary transactions commence and are used to guard against fraudulent use of school funds by head teachers . they protect schools official from the embarrassment of unwise spending of school money and wrongful use of school property. ) Continuous audits-occur throughout the year to improve educational program. These should be carried out to ensure that the funds are spent wisely and for the purpose for which they were budgeted for. d) Post audits –carried out immediately the fiscal year to allow for enough time for the budgeting next fiscal year. They help the head teacher to know how much they spent in the previous year and how much less or more they need for each school item (activity) during the coming fiscal year. Finally, the functions of internal auditing and external auditing may seem to overlap but it should be noted that the former is a management measure to ensure the daily efficiency in managing school funds, while the latter evaluates the adherence to the accepted principles, practices and statutory provisions of management in financial transactions. However, when an internal auditing is properly done, it will cut down on the cost of the external auditing (UNESCO report, 2002) Records and books of accounts for external auditing. After signing the contract, the school head must submit to the auditor all accounts; records and books to facilitate his/her work. All the relevant evidence must also be included to enable the auditor to draw conclusions on the state of school accounts. The head teacher should be ready to give oral evidence and to allow any inspection of assets which the auditor may consider necessary because auditors are in highly privileged position and have statutory rights to demand such information and explanations as they consider necessary for the purpose of auditing. Rajeev, 2005) A UNESCO report says that the auditor’s report is reached by a process of examining and evaluating all documents or evidence pertaining to the financial transactions of the school. In a school, books of accounts are usually written and kept by the bursar. A primary record in the school s financial statements is the general ledger. This consists of figures and records from various journals which give the daily records of financial transactions in the; a school cash book where the daily cash income and expenditure is recorded. A petty cash voucher may also be used along with the cash book. Almost all assets, liabilities, income and expenses clear through the cash account and the auditors will spend time carefully examining the cash book to establish the validity and reliability of other financial statements. Rajeev (2005), states that the following areas are also crucial in conducting the audit of any educational institution: 1) The constitution:- * Study the trust deed or any other similar document to ascertain the constitution of the educational institution. Make a note of provisions contained in the regulations which may affect accounts. 2) Minute’s books:- Peruse the minutes of the meeting of the governing body making a note of the resolutions affecting accounts. Ensure that the decisions taken have been duly complied with e. g. sanctioning of expenditures, operation of bank accounts, and rejection of any financial proposal. 3) Fees from students: – * Check the names entered in the students fee register for each month on term, with the respective clas s register, showing names of students on rolls and testing amount of fees charged. * See that the system of internal check ensures that demands against the students are properly raised. Verify fees received by comparing counterfoils of receipts given with entries in the cash book. * Ascertain whether fees paid in advance have been duly considered under the sanction of appropriate authority. * Verify admission fees with admission slips signed by the principal of the institution and confirming that the amount has been credited to a capital fund or separate account if decided so by the governing body * Ascertain whether hostel dues were recovered before students’ accounts were closed and their deposit of caution money refunded. Report any old arrears on account of fees, dormitory rent, etc to the governing body or management committee. 4) Other income:- * Verify any government or local body grant with the memo of grant. * Ascertain the reasons if any expenses have been disallowe d for purpose of -grant. * Vouch the income from endowments and legacies as well as interest and dividends from investment. * Verify the securities in respect of investments held. * Verify rental income from landed property with rent receipt and agreement expenditure. ) Expenditure :- * Ascertain the operation of internal control system over various heads of expenditure * Vouch various expenditure items, noting abnormal or heavy items, if any obtain suitable explanations for significant items of expenditure. 6) Taxation:- * Verify whether the institution enjoys tax exemptions under income tax act * Examine whether the conditions subject to which exemption has been granted have been followed. 7) General:- Verify the fixed assets and ensure the adequate depreciation is provided. * Verify the capital fund and other liabilities. * Note that the investments representing endowment funds for prizes are kept separate and any income in excess of prizes has been accumulated and invested along with the corpus * Confirm that caution money and other deposits paid by the students on admission have been shown as liability in the balance sheet and not transferred to revenue, unless they are not refundable. Ensure that separate statement of accounts have been prepared as regards scholarships ,game fund ,hostel fund ,library fund and P. E,etc. * Verify whether the form and manner of presentation of financial information conforms to relevant accounting standards if any and other applicable legal requirements. * Obtain appropriate representation and certificates from the competent person appointed by governing by or management committee in respect of various aspects covered during the course of audit. Audit report According to Allan (2006), at the end of his audit when he has examined the schools records and its financial statements, the auditor produces a report addressed to the board of governors and other stake holders of the school in which he expresses his opinion of the truth and fairness and sometimes other aspects of the financial statements. An audit report should be clear, constructive and concise. The auditor will point in writing to the authorities; * Any weaknesses /strength in the accounting system of the school. Deficiencies in the financial control system * Inadequacies in the financial policies and practices * Non-compliance with accounting standards and legislation The auditors’ opinion can be unqualified, qualified or adverse depending on the state of the books of accounts and any other evidence the auditor may have examined and evaluated. An unqualified opinion is positive and satisfactory and a qualified reservation about the state of the schools accounts. Conclusi on School funds are the property of the government and citizens. They are meant to be used for the purpose of providing better education for children. There is need for public funds to be protected from any kind of misuse such as fraud embezzlement or theft. In order to ensure that school funds are secure, the head teacher should advise the school committee members or the board of governors to carry out periodic audits. It is unwise to keep postponing audits in a school. Prolonged audits are likely to be very expensive. To protect the funds and ensure effective operation of the school, the head teachers should also protect school funds by providing efficient guidelines to teachers and other school officers dealing with school funds According to Robert (2002), when auditing process determines that money was managed legally, and appropriately, then the school should have the tools to use funds effectively, efficiently and productively. In essence, it is very important for a school head to ensure that there are enough funds for running the school. An appropriate budget identifying all school activities to be prepared and approved must be adopted and properly utilized. For proper accounting and recording, all purchases must be receipted and payments mad kept. References: Barasa, J. M. Nyongesa, (2007), Educational Organization and Management. The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation Enterprise Road, Industrial Area, Nairobi- Kenya Everret, Robert E. Lows, Raymond and Johnson, Donald R; (1995) Financial Management Accounting for School Administration. Reston, VA: Association of School Business Officials International. Gupta, R (2005), How to conduct audit of educational institutions. Issue of chartered accountant Practice Journal. 1st Issue. Hayes S. Rick et al(2002),Principles of auditing . An international perspective . Millichamp A. H. (2006) Auditing . 8th Edition. Thomson Learning, Holborn House, pg 50-51 Bedford Rowi London WCIR4LR. Okumbe, J. A (1998) Educational management. Theory and Practice. Nairobi University Press. Nairobi University, Kenya. Omondi, J. (nd) Management of Finance and Property in Secondary Schools. Handbook Manual for Bursars. Public School Budgeting, Accounting and Auditing, Answers. com. Retrieved on 15/10/2011,1. 22p. m. UNESCO Report (2002), Auditing of School Account Books. Resource Materials for School Heads in Africa. Module Five Unit Six. Wango G. (2007) School Administration and Management. Quality Assurance and Standards in Schools. JKF. Nairobi, Kenya.

Timeline of 15th Century Inventions

Timeline of 15th Century Inventions Most people know that Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type presses during the 15th century- in 1440 to be exact. That invention, which was possibly historys greatest, made the inexpensive printing of books possible. But, many other important inventions were introduced  during this century. Below are those that top the list. Early 1400s: Golf, Music, and Painting Tiger Woods,  Arnold Palmer,  and  Jack Nicklaus  would never have walked the links without the invention of the little white ball that they smacked incredible distances. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart  could never have composed his classic concertos without a piano. And, imagine the  Renaissance  without oil painting. Yet, these world changing inventions were created in the early 1400s.   1400: Golf is thought to have originated in a game played in Scotland as early as 1400. The balls were made of wood and didnt travel very far, but at least they represented a start. Indeed, golf was so entrenched in Scotland by midcentury that in 1457,  King James II of Scotland  issued a ban  against playing the game.The earliest version of the piano, called a clavichord, came into existence this year, according to the website, Piano Play It. In 1420, the clavichord  gave way to the harpsichord and leter the spinet, which looks more like the pianos used today.1411: Technically called the matchlock, the trigger- the basic firing mechanism for a rifle or gun- first appeared this year.1410: Oil paint, itself, was actually invented in Asia sometime before the fifth century, but oil painting techniques- like those used by such great artists as  Leonardo da Vinci  and  Michelangelo- were introduced this year by  Jan van Eyck.1421: In Florence, Italy, hoisting gear was inve nted.1439/1440: Gutenberg invents the printing press. Midcentury: Printing Press, and Glasses You would not be reading this website if it were not for Gutenbergs invention of the printing press, upon which all modern typed material is based- including printed material on the web. And, many of you would not be able to read this page without glasses. The rifle also- sadly- advanced during this period. 1450: Nicholas of Cusa created spectacles of polished lenses for nearsighted people.1455: Gutenberg introduced the printing press with metal movable type, marking a turning point in world history.1465: In Germany, drypoint engravings came into existence.1475: Muzzle-loaded rifles were invented in Italy and Germany. Late 1400s: The Parachute, Flying Machines, and Whiskey Many of the ideas and devices common in modern times came into existence in this time period. Some, like the parachute or flying machines, were merely drawings inked on a page by Da Vinci. Others, such as the globe, helped humans navigate the world, and whiskey became a popular drink in the U.S. and worldwide. 1486: In Venice, the first known copyright was granted.1485: Da Vinci designed the first parachute.1487: Bell chimes were invented.1492: Da Vinci was the first to seriously theorize about flying machines.Martin Behaim invented the first map globe.1494: Whiskey was invented in Scotland. Resources and Further Reading â€Å"Early Piano History.† Edited by Ashwati Franklin, Piano Play It, 2017. Highfield, Roger. â€Å"Oil Painting Invented in Asia, Not Europe.† The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 22 Apr. 2008. â€Å"The Matchlock.† The Encyclopedia of Weapons, 22 June 2011. â€Å"Oil Paint History.† Cyberlipid, Les Sites De GERLI.

En Faire Tout un Fromage - French Expression

En Faire Tout un Fromage - French Expression The French expression en faire tout un fromage is a tasty way to describe an overreaction. When someone greatly exaggerates the importance of an event, they turn it into a whole cheese in French. It literally means to make a whole cheese about it and is used to mean make a big  fuss/stink/deal/song  and dance about it. It is pronounced  [ah(n) fehr too too(n) fruh mazh]. It has an informal  register. Remember that en replaces de plus a noun, so you can also say faire tout un fromage de (quelque chose). Examples and Variations   Ã‚  Il ne faut pas en faire tout un fromage  !  Ã‚  Ã‚  No need to make a big fuss about it!  Ã‚  Ã‚  Laurent a fait tout un fromage de ma dà ©cision.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Laurent made a big song and dance about my decision. You may also see the following variations of  en  faire  tout un  fromage: faire un fromage de (quelque chose) en faire un fromagefaire tout un plat de (quelque chose) en faire tout un platfaire tout un plat de fromage de (quelque chose) en faire tout un plat de fromage Similar Phrases Ce nest pas la fin du mondeCe nest pas la mer boirechercher midi 14 heuresfaire toute une histoire dese faire une montagne de rien / dun rien​​

Powerful Tactics That Will Increase Conversion Rates With Lance Jones

Powerful Tactics That Will Increase Conversion Rates With Lance Jones How are your conversion rates? Are you getting qualified leads? To drive value for your company, you need to convert audience members to customers. If you think you need help, you do. Today, we’re talking to Lance Jones, director of marketing at ReCharge, which helps its customers sell subscriptions on their Shopify stores. Lance shares powerful tactics to help you increase conversion rates. ReCharge’s biggest marketing challenges; from distractions to lack of patience Combining conversion rate optimization and audience language to communicate effectively Connecting with customers by using their words and phrases in your copywriting Formulas and techniques for successful conversion copywriting, including problem/agitation/solution (PAS) Building partnerships and relationships with niche businesses; knowing your target customer and their pain points to offer solutions Providing value back to partners by understanding their business and offering services/tools to solve problems Building trust by educating and teaching customers how to do something Focusing on a new niche; it’s difficult to commit to going narrow Links: ReCharge Joanna Wiebe and Copywriting Formulas Jesse Mecham YNAB MetaLab Flow AMP on iTunes leave a review and send screenshot to podcast@.com If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Lance: â€Å"The biggest challenge istrying to remain free of distractions.† â€Å"As marketers, we are too close to our products.† â€Å"Pretty much every aspect of marketing involves words.†

Litterature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Litterature - Essay Example Baldwin’s socio-economic, gender, racial, and religious conditions shape a personal-universal writing style, which aims to write for people who establish and develop their identities, using their own frame of references. Cultural Issues and Influences Baldwin’s cultural issues intersect concerns for race, gender, and class, where Harlem is one of the strongest cultural influences on Baldwin. The poverty of his family and neighborhood and the religiosity of his stepfather affected his work aesthetics and style. Gerald Meyer believes that the key to understanding Baldwin’s politics is through analyzing his Harlem roots and culture. While some writers like Langston Hughes saw Harlem as a black Mecca, Baldwin lived in it and remembers it as a ghetto.† Baldwin’s â€Å"The Harlem Ghetto† dispels notions of aesthetic greatness that some writers attribute to it: †¦the buildings are old and in desperate need of repair, the streets are crowded and dirty; there are too many human beings per square mile†¦ All of Harlem is a place pervaded by a sense of congestion, rather like the insistent, maddening, claustrophobic pounding in the skull that comes from trying to breathe in a very small room with all the windows shut.† (39 qtd. in Meyer 274). ... Furthermore, though coming from a low economic status with racial and gender concerns, Baldwin resists being a black fundamentalist or to conform to any label. Instead, he supports diverse views, a devotion which signifies his multiracial and multi-gender politics. He does not want to be seen as a Negro writer or as a gay writer per se (Field 7). In writing for all, nevertheless, critics charged him for having no unifying ideology. Francois Burgess disparages Baldwin’s works as being too broad: â€Å"Alone among Black contemporary writers, Baldwin could not or did not know how to find a central ideology that would give to his work coherence and unity† (Bobia 54 qtd. in Field 7). But this paper believes that Baldwin only writes from what he feels is personally right, which resonate with those who experience or witness the same struggles. Baldwin does not have to conform to the frameworks and labels of others to become the writer that he wants to be. Aside from Harlem, Pa ris shaped Baldwin’s writings through the theme of expatriation. Baldwin leaves America, not only because he is disillusioned with the persecution of his race and gender in the U.S., but more so because he wants to distance himself from these struggles, in order to find his identity, including his writing voice. Price describes Baldwin’s Parisian stopover as a â€Å"liberating experience,† that gives him â€Å"the sanction, if one can accept it, to become oneself† (313 qtd. in Tomlinson 136). Baldwin cannot be himself in a society that attacks him from different sides. The physical distance refreshes him, reminding him of his roles and functions as a writer and as an American. Robert Tomlinson argues that the theme of expatriation in Baldwin’s works

Technology integration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Technology integration - Essay Example AT&T is a telecommunication company that offers a wide variety of products and services to Americans. The following factors has made the company’s success in the integration of technology. AT&T Company is well known in contacting immense research at all times. This enables them to capture a broad range of customers which determines their profit at the end of the day. The company has an extremely qualified research team that embarks on constant research work and working close with the product designers, and they can come up with the latest products meeting the customer’s needs (Yee and Oh, 2013). The company is working on the internet of things and bringing new technological gadgets beefed up with 3 & 4G networks which make the users download products from websites in few seconds. These products are as a result of constant R&D, that the company has heavily invested. AT&T Company has the best innovative team that has ever been known in history. They constantly keep innovating so as to meet the rising needs and even goes to the extent of making products which make the life of the user even more comfortable. The company also achieves this through the issuance of patents which makes its team broader. From their official website, the company in the year 2014 issued at least one patent a day, and that has seen them have over 10000 patents issued in various parts of the world. In this case, the company will always have state-of-the-art technology at all times ensuring new and improved products to meet a broad range of customer needs (Iansiti, 1998). It is very true when a company becomes very aggressive in the above-discussed sectors of constant innovation and R&D, it will undoubtedly succeed. AT&T Company not only utilizes the two aspects, but also works out with mergers and acquisition that makes the company widen its

Paper 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Paper 2 - Essay Example At the beginning of the story the readers are mislead to believe that Mrs. Mallard â€Å"was afflicted with a heart trouble† (Chopin 2009). Within the context of the whole story â€Å"heart trouble† has a double meaning. The author here tries to hint that the heart trouble might not be the heart disease that Mrs. Mallard is thought to suffer from. Besides the literal meaning, heart troubles are also connected to the feelings and inner spirituality of people. The use of the passive voice â€Å"was afflicted† speaks about the impossibility of Mrs. Mallard to act as she wishes. And because of her faint heart Josephine – her sister and Richards – a close family friend, reveal her â€Å"gently† the heart-breaking news of her husband’s death. They way in which her sister delivers her the news is in â€Å"broken sentences†. Broken sentences contrast with the fear of her family to break her heart. The use of oxymoron – â€Å"rev ealed in half concealing† suggests that the revelation of the death of her husband, conceals Mrs. Mallard’s inner feelings. Someone else’s feelings are also concealed in this paragraph. Mrs. Mallard’s husband’s friend Richards is depicted as impatient. Unclear clues are scattered throughout the paragraph. Richards assures himself of the truth, he hastens to Mrs. Mallard’s home and uses â€Å"less careful, less tender† language to bear her the â€Å"sad message†. There is an opposition here. â€Å"Less careful† might mean that Richards is both clumsy and rough man, but it can mean that he also conceals his feelings for Mrs. Mallard, as she is already married. By being less tender he will show to Mrs. Mallard that he has a strong personality and emotions to her. The â€Å"sad message† is employed ironically here. It is both ironic and sarcastic that sad message can bring happiness to two people

The Catholic Faith With Contrasting Facts on Islam Religion Essay

The Catholic Faith With Contrasting Facts on Islam Religion - Essay Example With the death of Christ, the apostle Peter was designated as the first Pope, or temporal head of the Catholic Church. Since then, the mission of this faith is to spread the faith across the world. According to Pope Benedict XVI, the mission of the Catholic Church can be summarized â€Å"as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity† (Benedict XVI 2005). Known to be one of the oldest institutions in the world, the Catholic Church is rich with traditions and beliefs seen through the eyes of devotees. This essay provides the opportunity for a Catholic devotee to be interviewed. In the process, one would appreciate the insights, beliefs, underlying teachings of the Catholic Church as seen from of an ordinary woman. The interview was conducted in the Infant of Prague Catholic Church at Jacksonville, North Carolina. The person being interviewed is Christina Cordero, a Roman Catholic by virtue of her birth and baptism. She was raised in another country, the Philippines, which is a predominantly Catholic country. The Infant of Prague Catholic Church is medium built. It has three balconies, vaulted ceilings, a separate room for families with small children who might act up during service, an elaborate altar flanked by praying candles, and beautiful stained glass windows with depictions of St. Michael, St. Peter and others saints. Apart from the solemn faà §ade, there is just one thing that needs some maintenance and repairs – the pews.

Language of Thought and Fodor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Language of Thought and Fodor - Essay Example This paper is based on his book titled The Language of Thought, as it seeks to prove that Fodor was right in saying that the nature of human thought requires the existence of a language of thought that is not one's native language. At the very onset, it is imperative to highlight the main features of the nature of human thought. Human thought is that course or process which enables a human being to make rational choices and recognise symbols. This process goes beyond language, according to Fodor. It is contained in the laws of nature and the reaction that a human instinctively offers in the study of these laws. Here, it is imperative to speak about language so as to compare and contrast the two before proving Fodor's theory. (Fodor, 1975) The knowledge of a language is akin to the art of knowing about an entire culture, nation and people. Language may be defined as a form of expression that reveals a person's identity and gives him or her a sense of belonging. But how does a language structure a person's experiences To begin with, the role of language in one's life is one that fulfils the need to belong. This sense of belonging springs from one's immediate environment where there is focus on the language one speaks along with complementary elements like accent, nuances and other such features that form the general social and cultural terrain of the particular place. Language offers people first hand knowledge of a variety of symbols that one comes to associate with a place. This in turn generates a more enriching quality to one's experiences. (Mercer, 1996) In knowing and learning a language, whether by birth or subsequent settlement, there is a certain amount of satisfaction that helps contribute to one's sense of identity. This also has certain mental implications as it shows the person's basic aptitudes, besides brining him or her face to face with the challenges of implementing the language. This makes a person draw from experiences of the past, learn from present experiences and contribute to future experiences, which will shape his or her overall life experiences. This also renders a certain amount of creative and communicative competency to a person and his or her sense of confidence with which he or she carries out interactions with people. If Fodor is to be believed, then the competency of a person comes from being able to effectively use language to portray what is within. For this, it is imperative to portray the most elementary human thought in a language that transcends words, diction and pronunciation. This connects langua ge with experience. (Fodor, 1975) In this regard, it is necessary to shift focus to the process of learning of a language and garnering communicative competency. This process is important in every individual's life as the knowledge comes only after learning. The very process of learning is a journey throughout which an individual is brought face to face with experiences. These experiences form his or her general perspective on things. In this way, there is a certain level of competency which in turn, springs from the areas and experiences that a person finds comfortable to deal with. Learning a language is a crucial part of describing how a language shapes a person's experiences. (Girvin, 2000) Learning a language has always been a great challenge. While this is a matter of creating awareness, it is also a matter of creating certain comfort level that will trigger communicative com

The Catholic Faith With Contrasting Facts on Islam Religion Essay

The Catholic Faith With Contrasting Facts on Islam Religion - Essay Example With the death of Christ, the apostle Peter was designated as the first Pope, or temporal head of the Catholic Church. Since then, the mission of this faith is to spread the faith across the world. According to Pope Benedict XVI, the mission of the Catholic Church can be summarized â€Å"as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity† (Benedict XVI 2005). Known to be one of the oldest institutions in the world, the Catholic Church is rich with traditions and beliefs seen through the eyes of devotees. This essay provides the opportunity for a Catholic devotee to be interviewed. In the process, one would appreciate the insights, beliefs, underlying teachings of the Catholic Church as seen from of an ordinary woman. The interview was conducted in the Infant of Prague Catholic Church at Jacksonville, North Carolina. The person being interviewed is Christina Cordero, a Roman Catholic by virtue of her birth and baptism. She was raised in another country, the Philippines, which is a predominantly Catholic country. The Infant of Prague Catholic Church is medium built. It has three balconies, vaulted ceilings, a separate room for families with small children who might act up during service, an elaborate altar flanked by praying candles, and beautiful stained glass windows with depictions of St. Michael, St. Peter and others saints. Apart from the solemn faà §ade, there is just one thing that needs some maintenance and repairs – the pews.

The Broadway show Chicago Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Broadway show Chicago - Personal Statement Example The most exhilarating shows in Chicago's lively Downtown Theater District contributed significantly to my appreciation of the aesthetic experience of the mind and the stages of the Ford Center for the Performing Arts/Oriental Theatre, the Cadillac Palace Theatre, the Bank of America Theatre, the Auditorium Theatre and the Drury Lane Theatre Water Tower Place are some of the most notable stages that brought to my mind a really high opinion about stage show Chicago. The Addams Family and Jersey Boys are two of the most incredible shows in the Broadway show in Chicago. Significantly, the former is a splendid new show created by Jersey Boys authors Marshall Brickman and Rick Elice at the Oriental Theater, Ford Center, while the latter is a multi-award winning show. "The weird and wonderful family created by cartoonist Charles Addams comes to devilishly delightful life in a new Broadway Musical The Addams Family Jersey Boys, the mutli-award winning Broadway show about the rise to fame of Frankie Valli & the Four Seasons is breaking box office records at the Bank of America Theater in Chicago." (The Best Shows in Chicago) Therefore, my experience in the Broadway show in Chicago has given me an essential opportunity to understand and appreciate aesthetic value of the stage show in Chicago, in which I realized the importance of costume, dance, choreography, musical elements of the show. It is fundamental to note that the Broadway show in Chicago is an absolute beauty, incorporating dance, choreography, music, performances, etc. and the various stages in the show bring before the audience a memorable experience that no one ever forget all through his life. One of the main attractions of the shows here is the costumes used for various performances, dance programs, and musical shows. Significantly, Broadway costumes offer accuracy and professionalism to any performance staged in Chicago. The great wealth of theatrical costumes enhances the beauty of every show presented here, and I was particularly attracted to the theatrical costumes of the Pirates of Penzance and Phantom of the Opera. Another fundamental attraction of the Broadway show in Chicago is, undoubtedly, the pulse-racing revival of the musical 'Chicago' which also incorporates some of the sexiest and most sophisticated dancing on Broadway show. As Ben Brantley maintains, "this new incarnation, directed by Wa lter Bobbie and choreographed by Ann Reinking (who also stars), makes an exhilarating case both for 'Chicago' as a musical for the ages and for the essential legacy of Fosse, whose ghost has never been livelier than it is here." (Brantley) Therefore, the costumes, musical, dancing, and choreography in the Broadway show in Chicago attract a number of theatre-goers today. The Broadway show in Chicago has offered me a great opportunity to recognize my ability to appreciate aesthetic elements of every artistic form. The costumes of the show attracted me very much and the dancers and choreographers seemed amazing to me. Significantly, the stage show in Chicago helped me in realizing the excitement of Chicago tourism and every show I witnessed here will live in my loveliest memories all through my life. The striking revival of Chicago musical and dancing reminded me of the glorious days of the show.

Emotion and New York Essay Example for Free

Emotion and New York Essay In Proof, there is a contrast presented between the abstract and tangible aspects of life. Claires life revolves around everything that is practical while Catherine relies more on things that are theoretical. These choices cause problems in each sisters life in that they are both disconnected from the real world and neither can relate to other people, including each other. Catherine focuses on the theoretical, letting her life revolve around things that are not tangible, things that other people cannot necessarily see. Early on in the play, Catherine figures out that the number of days she has wasted because of her depression is a mathematically significant number. Math is a very abstract science and this scene shows how mathematically minded Catherine is. It also shows how easily she is able to think abstractly. Her father helps her mathematically manipulate this number right before he admits that he is, in fact, dead at the time of this conversation. Again, Catherine is relying on something intangible, the mental representation of Robert. While Robert was ill, Catherine stayed with him to take care of him emotionally. She did not typically wash dishes, clean the house, or pay bills, Catherine was taking care of her fathers emotional state. In her mind, she was making sure he stayed well by having someone to rely on for the intangible aspects of life. Because Catherine lives in the abstract, she is unable to relate to people who live in the real world. Because of this and other reasons, she has no friends. She tells her father, in order for your friends to take you out you generally have to have friends. Most 25 year olds would go out with friends on their birthday; the fact that she has no friends is odd and causes the audience to worry. In the end of Act 1 Scene 1, Catherine calls the cops to keep Hal from stealing one of her fathers notebooks even though, as she admits in the beginning of Scene 2, she didnt really want them to come. The cops come back the next morning and are not happy. This shows that she does not relate well with the practical world and its consequences. Unlike her sister, Claire is overly practical, completely engrossed in material aspects of life. While Catherine is at home with their father,  Robert, Claire moves to New York to continue her education, get her own place, and have a job. She pays all the bills from New York, but does not involve herself with other aspects of taking care of their father besides encouraging Catherine to put him in a full time care situation. Bills are very material and concrete, showing how much Claire relies on tangible aspects of life and how well she can deal with these things. When Claire is visiting Catherine for their fathers funeral, she tries to get Catherine to try a conditioner she likes. When Catherine asks Claire for some scientific facts about the Jojoba in the conditioner, Claire replies, it makes my hair feel, look, and smell good. Thats the extent of my information about it. Claire doesnt know any scientific information about the Jojoba, only how it physically affects her hair. Claire values material objects over immaterial things like emotions, which makes it difficult for her to connect with people and deal with them appropriately. At the party after the funeral, Claire tries to out drink the theoretical physicists and fails miserably waking up with a horrible hangover. Claire does this because she believes, incorrectly, that she is better than the theoretical physicists based on their lack of grounding in the practical world. At the end of Act 1, Claire tells Catherine, its not your fault. Its my fault for letting you do it. This implies that Claire thinks she can control Catherine. Claire believes she can control people like she can control things. Claire also decides she wants Catherine to move to New York so she can keep a better eye on her. She tells Catherine it would be much easier for me to get you set up in an apartment in New York again showing how she wants to control Catherines life and does not show regard for Catherines emotions such as Cath erines desire to stay in her home town and her sense of belonging there. Due to Catherine and ClaireÂ’s different priorities, they do not relate to each other and have a disconnected relationship. This is established early on in the play when Catherine says to her father, she is not my friend, she is my sisterAnd I dont like her. It is clear from this statement that Catherine does not feel connected to Claire. At one point Claire goes so far as to accuse Catherine of being insane, claiming that Catherine has made up  Harold Dobbs. She later meets Hal and does not even apologize to her sister. Sadly, this is not the only thing Claire does to show complete disregard for her sisters feelings. When Hal shows up in Act 1 Scene 2, Catherine makes a big scene and Claire completely ignores her. “CATHERINE: Okay? I really donÂ’t need this, Claire. IÂ’m fine, you know, IÂ’m totally fine, and then you swoop in here with these questions, and “Are you okay?” and your soothing tone of voice and “Oh, the poor policemen” Ââ€" I think the police can handle themselves! Ââ€" and bagels and bananas and jojoba and “Come to New York” and vegetarian chili. I mean it really pisses me off, so just save it. (Beat.)CLAIRE: (smoothly to HAL) IÂ’m Claire. CatherineÂ’s sister.”Clearly Claire is ignoring CatherineÂ’s emotions and chooses to not try to deal with her sisters fit. This is also an example of how Catherine inappropriately deals with her own emotions and her sisters attempts to help. Claire cannot be there for Catherine if she wonÂ’t deal with any emotions and Catherine chooses not to react calmly to ClaireÂ’s assertions. Neither sister has found the best way to live their life, they need to find a happy medium between the practical and theoretical aspects of life so that they can function properly in the real world and relate to the people living in it. Works Cited: Proof by David Auburn

Impact of Performance Appraisal System on Employee

Impact of Performance Appraisal System on Employee Research Background The proposal for this research is regarding investigating the impact of existing performance appraisal on the development of employees system in LT. Every company follows a method of performance evaluation. Performance appraisal process and evaluation is conducted with an aim to understand the level to which the employees of the company have achieved their targets. Performance appraisal is a periodical process whereby the supervisor observes his subordinate and reports his conclusions regarding the performance level at the end of each period. The superiors retrospect and make it a point that the employees are evaluated suitably. There are various kinds of performance appraisal method. Companies follow various kinds of appraisal methods like 360 degree feedback system, MBO, BARS, Critical incidence methods etc. Performance appraisal in every sense caters to the companys competitive advantage. The performance evaluation system helps the company retain its efficient employees; help the company to find out the areas were training needs to be provided; the company can also ensure that a common value system if followed. Thus aiding in complete development of the employees. Performance evaluation process will help the employees do an evaluation of themselves and work for improvements if any. This will ultimately lead to the development of the organization (Bratton and Gold, 1994).Thus every company tries to investigate the level to which its employees have achieved their targets and if not what are the measures to be taken for their performance improvement. LT follows the MBO model of performance appraisal in the company. MBO means management by objectives, in this kind of an appraisal process the superior and employee agree upon certain objectives. These objectives will be based on the overall target of the company. In this kind of an appraisal process the employees know beforehand as to what they need to achieve in the particular period of time. In LT since they follow this method the employees are aware of what is expected of them. In order bring specificity and quality to the process they performed the evaluation process based on SMART, which expands as specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time linked. Larsen Toubro- Company Description LT is one of the largest construction companies in India. ECC is the Engineering Construction and Contracts Division which is a reputed construction division of LT which has to its credit some of the monumental and modern buildings and constructions in India. The company not merely does the construction of buildings but also industrial structures, Flyovers and many more other large-scale construction works in India and abroad. The company carries out various projects that use high end technology and expertise. The company has various divisions around the country i.e. almost 7 offices regionally and nearly 250 work sites. Apart from Construction LT has various other businesses also, like the LT Infotech and insurance. Under ECC division the company has various strategic business units like the transportation infrastructure, Industrial projects and utilities, buildings and factories etc. The company employs a large number of people at managerial and non managerial level. Thus the company needs to have a well defined performance appraisal system. The company thus follows MBO method to evaluate it employees. The company has a well defined Human Resource Policy and system which enables the employees to work efficiently and effectively. Rationale for the research topic The topic Investigating the impact of existing performance appraisal system on employee development of Larsen Toubro, ECC division was chosen with an aim to identify the performance appraisal process followed in one of the largest construction companies in India. The research would help in analyzing the various performance appraisal problems in company like biasing etc. The study will also lead to analyzing the effectiveness of the performance appraisal process in identifying and bringing out the core competencies and role clarity in the employee. The research is meant to finally give recommendations and insights for the betterment of the performance evaluation in the company. Literature Review Armstrong in 2006 proposed that performance appraisal can be considered as an instrument to measure and utilize the technical skills and knowledge of employees in a better way as well as to equip them for facing the future challenges and goals. Performance appraisal can also be regarded as a method to obtain feedback about the performance effectiveness of employees in an organization (SzilagyiWallace 1990). A survey conducted by the CIPD (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development) revealed that in the year 2005 almost 65% of organizations conducted annual appraisal for their employees. The companies which conducted appraisal twice a year accounted to 27%. From this it becomes clear that almost all organizations in the world now realize the importance of appraisal system. Employees are considered as valuable assets by present day organizations since the scarcity of skilled labor is high. Companies try all ways to retain their skilled employees and an effective performance appraisal system helps to keep track on the KSA (Knowledge, Skills and Abilities) of employees (Amstrong and Baron, 2004). The companies now recognize the fact that only high performing employees could help it to achieve it short-term and long-term objectives (Michlitsch ,2000). Edmonstone in 1996 stated that there exists many purposes for performance appraisal. This may include improving the communication between the superiors and employees with the help of feedback mechanism. This way it helps in building the rapport between the members of organization. Another purpose is that it helps to find out whether the employee lacks any skills and identify areas where he/she needs training. The standards kept for performance by the companies helps to identify those employees who need to be appraised and those who should be demoted. Public and private sector companies follow different methods of appraisal that suits their organization structure. But Boice Kleiner (1997) proposed that all successful appraisal methods have similar characteristics. But its difficult to measure performance in certain organizations and they face the difficulty of implementing an effective performance appraisal method. Marsden in 1999 explained that any appraisal system that cannot constantly measure job performance of employees cannot be regarded as effective. There are several methods of appraisal followed by organizations. The most common methods include 360 degree feedback, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS), Management by Objectives (MBO), Balanced Score Card etc (Bohlander Snell 1998) The importance of communication in performance appraisal system was explained by OReilly and Anderson, (2006). They said that there should be an open communication between the employee and the superior. More they interact better would be the appraisal system. The manager could explain about the actual performance of employee and the expected performance. The method followed by LT is also based on communication. Appraisal method in LT, Chennai Larsen Toubro has adopted the method of MBO (Management by Objectives). This method was first introduced by Peter Drucker in 1954. In this method, the superior and subordinate conducts a meeting in which they jointly sets the objectives of the employee for the next appraisal period (Bohlander Snell 1998). The employee performance is evaluated on the basis on these pre-determined objectives. These objectives will be usually amount of sales, quantity of production etc. The organizational objectives are attained in this method with the help of a cyclical process. In this the management initially sets the objectives of organization followed by departmental objectives and finally individual goals. All these goals will be interconnected in such a way that fulfilling one of them will positively affect the other. Caroll and Tosi explained that MBO must fit into the philosophical framework of an organization. This is due to the reason that the management attitude and MBO must go hand in hand. Merely giving support to MBO through words is not sufficient. Lussier in 2008 explained about the possible reasons for the failure of MBO. A major reason behind the failure of MBO method is many companies is absence of commitment and follow-up from the management. Another reason is that management fails to convince employees that they are also an integral part of the decision making process. Employees feel that all major decisions and goal-setting have been done by the management without consulting them. When this happens, the employees will be less committed to work for the management and meet the objectives. The autonomous and dynamic involvement of employees can be considered as the most significant contribution of MBO to the communication mechanism within the company (Roodman Roodman 1973). Singla (2009) has explained the features of MBO method. All the activities included in this method are aimed at achieving the goals. The individual, departmental and organizational objectives are interconnected. Organization is considered as a dynamic entity in this method. MBO compares the resources available with objectives and makes the best match. This method is rather a philosophy or idea than a technique. MBO emphasizes on performance review and appraisal. The employees are given more autonomy in this method. Outcomes are given more weightage than the job. These features make the method of MBO unique from other methods of performance appraisal. Research Question One of the relevant questions that can be put forward in this context would be; what is the impact of performance appraisal system on employee development? Certain other kinds of questions that can be asked as per the topic are the following: Does the appraisal system aid in the performance improvement of the employee through proper training methods? Does the appraisal process bring about a positive relationship between the employees and the superiors? Is the appraisal process (MBO) followed in the company effective in utilizing the employs core competences for the betterment of the organization? Does the appraisal process clearly define the roles of the employees? Research Objectives General objective To investigate the impact of existing performance appraisal system on employee development. Specific objectives To study the effect of performance appraisal system on employee potential with respect to core competency. To evaluate the issues related to the performance appraisal process in the company. Methodology 7.1 Research design design adopted The research design includes the whole process of data analysis and study. This study follows a diagnostic research design where in the researcher identifies a problem related to the topic in the company. After diagnosing the problem the researcher goes on for an evaluation and ultimately finds a solution for the problem. The research design involves data collection through various means, after which the collected data is analyzed. The analysis will lead to giving solutions to the problem. The solutions obtained are recorded in the research as the result of the study. 7.2 Data Collection Methods (a) Sampling methods Sample is taken from the population of employees in LT ECC. The sampling method that can be followed in this research work is simple random sampling. In this kind of probability sampling every person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the study. The employees who are involved in the performance evaluation process are taken for the study. (b) Size of the sample The sample size chosen for the study will be 100. The data collection is done with the help of these 100 individuals chosen through simple random sampling. (c) Sampling Technique Sampling technique is the means by which the researcher chooses his respondents. Every research or study has a planned sampling process wherein the researcher clearly identifies the sample individuals for his study. The samples chosen depend upon the topic of the study because the respondents play a crucial role in formulating a result for the topic as they are asked to respond to the researchers questions through questionnaires etc. In this research the respondents will include both the managerial level employees and also the non managerial employees, as both the groups are involved in performance appraisal process. Questionnaire Questionnaire is a structured form of data collection used in any research. The researcher includes all the important questions regarding the topic in the questionnaire. The respondents chosen using the sampling method are identified and given the questionnaire for response. The respondents will respond to the questions in the questionnaire which will help the researcher gain an idea about the problems in the company. In this research at LT the researcher will be including questions related to the performance appraisal process and issues in the company, also the questions regarding employee development. The researcher can use this data for the purpose of drawing results for the problems identified. Interview The researcher may at times find it apt to collect data by interviewing the respondent. In such situations interview will be more useful compared to questionnaire. In case of this study the researcher can ask direct questions related to the performance appraisal method followed in the company. Interview method will give more precise answers as the interviewer can ask many questions on performance appraisal and also employee development compared to the questionnaire. The interviewer can ask questions related to the particular core competency of the employee. Interview can also include many suggestion questions as to what changes the employees would like to have in the process followed in the company. Telephonic interview can be done in this research. Data Analysis A research cannot be concluded with the help of a rough data. For a researcher to obtain the right kind of result for his study the researcher needs to formulate a method to analyze the data in the most suitable way. Thus data analysis part of the research is essential in the sense that it converts the raw data into a form that can be well understood. Data analysis in this study is done using SPSS which is a tool for data management. Data analysis refers to that stage in research process in which different statistical techniques are applied. One should have a clear understanding of statistical thinking behind a data analysing technique in order to explain it in detail (Ader, Mellenberg Hand(2008). Resource Requirements The resources for the study need to be obtained from the library and also the internet. The relevant information on the topic can be collected using primary and secondary means. Resources of other forms include printed materials like magazines of the company and also other reports and journals, websites are also an important means or source of data collection. The researcher can obtain primary data by means of structured questionnaires and telephonic interviews. These resources will help the researcher in his research as they provide the base for the researcher to work upon.

Essay --

Executive summary With the arrival of WEB 2.0, business communications are no longer one way, rather, they create interaction between messenger and receiver. An organization’s website allows visitors to share and participate in the discussion. Organizations are increasingly abstaining from releasing all communications at once; rather, they are releasing bites of information in order to create a â€Å"buzz.† Social media captures information, organizes it, and presents it in context. Organizations are imbedding social media applications on their websites for the purpose of gaining business intelligence. Organizations are shaping their business strategies based on this intelligence. It’s important for organizations to understand that as result of social media, a company’s image extends far beyond the contents of its website. Through social media, a single message can go viral very quickly. An organization must be quick on acting upon any measure of success. Just as positive information about a company and its products can go viral, so can negative information as well. Organizations have found the need to create professional teams in charge of monitoring all communications surrounding a company. These communicatons take place on a 24/7 basis. Web 2.0 is serving as an experimental platform for professional communicators. Organizations are hiring software developers to design social media applications that are industry specific and allow consumers to interact with the organization. Organizations are gathering data on consumers through social media channels. Organizations are developing their own communications applications. The communications field has evolved substantially in the last decade. The arrival of new technologies has transla... ...ating a vast number of professional opportunities for people entering the field and for those with prior professional experience. For professionals who have learned to use all of the tools brought on by WEB 2.0, it’s translated into professional advancement. On the other hand, professionals who have chosen not to participate in the technological frenzy are not being promoted and their careers have stalled. For professionals like Anne Canty, the arrival of WEB 2.0 has given her a change to â€Å"put into action, management philosophies that she longed embraced, and also a chance to learn how to work with social media.† Although Canty believes that there will always be professional opportunities for those with good writing and listening skills, video editing and infographics(See bottom of page 5) are two areas where she believes â€Å"there will be increasing amounts of work.†

Disorders

The research states that in sexual trauma there is a prevalence of consequent axis II disorders, especially Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) as well as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Substance Use Disorder (SUDS) (Yen et al. , 2002). This heavy correlation between PTSD, borderline personality disorder and substance abuse disorder, create complications in treatment (Ross, Dermatis, Levounis, and Galanter, 2003). The goal of the present paper is three-fold.First, it aims at reviewing current research and theoretical frameworks which are designed to measure the degree of the relationship between PTSD and BPD. It is also sought to trace how it is possible by seeing to the correlation to avoid or neutralize further psycho social problems while reducing harm in substance abuse prevention. Second, the researcher plans to analyze the implications of how failure to address these dynamics in reducing harm and treating co-occurring disturbances may further delay treatment and cr eate relapse.Finally, there is an analysis of the methodologies employed in the treatment theories presented. A particular emphasis is made on the Integrative Treatment Approach suggested by Najavits (2002) and the Dialectical Behavioural Therapy developed by Lineham (1993). The researcher attempts to explain how these theories influenced the understanding of this dilemma. Before proceeding to the first point, it is necessary to clarify the main theoretical concepts, such as BPD and PTSD.Speaking popularly, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is â€Å"a normal response to an abnormal event† (Schiraldi, 2000, p. 3). Being categorized by the American Psychiatric Association as one of the anxiety disorders, it is typically caused by either or several of the three types of traumatic events: Intentional Human causes, Unintentional Human causes, or Acts of Nature. The presence of the stressor as part of the diagnosis differentiates PTSD from other disorders and makes it a uniquel y complex phenomenon.Besides an exposure to the stressful event, American Psychiatric Association in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1994, paraphrased in Schiraldi, 2000) lists another four PTSD criteria: persistent (more than one month) re-experiencing of the trauma (this category of symptoms is titled â€Å"intrusive memories† in Johnson, 2004), persistent (more than one month) avoidance of trauma-associated stimuli and suppression of general responsiveness (â€Å"avoidance behavior according to Johnson, 2004), persistent (more than one month) symptoms of hyperarousal (or, according to Johnson, 2004, â€Å"hypervigilance†), and disruption of psychological and functional equilibrium. In its turn, Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) from the viewpoints of attachment theory and developmental psychopathology is defined as â€Å"a highly prevalent, chronic, and debilitating psychiatric problem† associated with the fo llowing symptoms: â€Å"a pattern of chaotic and self-defeating interpersonal relationships, emotional lability, poor impulse control, angry outbursts, frequent suicidality, and self-mutilation† (Levy, 2005, p. 259).Kernberg (2004), who considered the organization of the personality to be crucially determined by affective responses as displayed under conditions of peak affect states, listed â€Å"identity diffusion and the †¦ predominance of primitive defensive operations centering on splitting† among the key symptoms of this psychological dysfunction noting that they are accompanied by â€Å"the presence of good reality testing† (p. 99). The researcher meant that although the patient imagined himself living in the paranoid and distorted reality, he differentiated between the self and other objects. It is true that many current researchers acknowledge the correlation between PTSD and BPD, the latter being treated as one type of personality disorders (PDs). Bremner (1999) conceptualized BPD as fitting to the psychiatric disorders associated with traumatic stress.From this perspective, an exposure to traumatic events and consequent stress affected structural and functional aspects of the brain so that stress-related psychiatric dysfunctions were developed. The viewpoint was supported by McGlashan et al. (2000) who as relying on the results of a descriptive, prospective, longitudinal, repeated-measures study of a clinical sample of four representative DSM-IV personality disorders called The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS) (N = 571) found a high rate of Axis II/II overlap. To specify, PTSD and BPD co-existed in almost a half of the sample. To be even more specific, Yen et al.(2002) conducted a longitudinal, prospective, naturalistic, multisite and cross-sectional study to analyze the correlation of the aforementioned two Axis II disorders within the population of 668 individuals between the ages of 18 and 45 years. Twenty-five percent of those participants (N = 167) exhibited BPD symptoms. Furthermore, BPD participants more often suffered from lifetime PTSD than patients with any other form of PDs (51% of those 191 individuals who reported of a history of traumatic exposure). Overall, Yen et al. (2002) hypothesized that BPD symptoms trigger vulnerability for traumatic exposure which is the key characteristic of PTSD. Bolton, Mueser, and Rosenberg (2006) observed that between 25% and 56% of individuals with BPD exhibit symptoms of current PTSD as compared to approximately 10% of other patients.Upon analysis of the two studies – the index one involving 275 mentally impaired inpatient and outpatient individuals with PTSD (30 patients with BPD among them) and the replication one involving 204 patients (20 people with BPD among them), the researchers stated that comorbid diagnoses of BPD and PTSD were associated with higher rates of severe anxiety and depression. Ross, Dermatis, Levou nis, and Galanter (2003) cited empirical evidence of comorbid PDs being highly associated with Substance Use Disorder (SUDS) in approximately 50% of the samples. They also shared a viewpoint that stress-related dysfunctions predicted worse treatment outcomes, for example, poorer psychosocial functioning, increase drug use, and lower retention rates.In a course of the eight-month research in a specialized inpatient dual diagnosis unit at a public hospital, the researchers observed the population of 100 patients, among which 53% displayed some kind of PDs. Seventy-four percent of the interviewees were targeted as having BPD, whereas twenty-five percent exhibited PTSD symptoms. Patients with comorbid disorders (dual and triple diagnoses) were more likely to abuse substance use (33% – alcohol; 32% – polysubstance; 25% – cocaine; 21% – cannabis; and 13% – heroin). Consequently, such individuals had more inpatient admissions and more severe symptom profi les than the ones with a single diagnosis. The difference between people with the single-, dual- and triple diagnoses was extremely evident in after-hospitalization treatment. Ross et al.(2003) argued that comorbidity of PDs as accompanied by SUDs should put the clinicians on alert as such individuals needed to be guided â€Å"at this critical junction† (p. 275) of a transition from the in- to out-patient environments so that they would be aware of the necessity to comply with after-care therapy. II†¦ The concluding section is dedicated to the analysis of the two innovative and effective therapeutic approaches to treating PDs as combined with SUDs: first, the Dialectical Behavioural Therapy developed by Lineham (1993) and, second, the Integrative Treatment Approach suggested by Najavits (2002). The former approach fits into the problem-solving therapeutic paradigm which is praised for the treatment allowing wide amplification and being clinically effective.Its core assum ption is that antisocial and inadequate behavioral patterns are explained by the scarcity of patients’ psychological resources to cope with their problems in an alternative acceptable manner. Lineham’s Dialectical Behavioural Therapy differentiates from other problem-solving alternatives in its particular attention to the effect of a specific diagnosis on the course of treatment and its extensive preventive measures against poor attendance. Linehan compared the outcomes of her dialectical behavioural therapy (DBT) to the ones of standard outpatient-care methods to find that the ratio of patients who continued treatment with the assistance of a single therapist increased from 42 to 83 percent. The approach utilizes a range of cognitive-behavioural therapeutic techniques as based on a dialectic philosophy.On the one hand, the patient is helped to value his/her self as a precious and integrative phenomenon by eliminating the feelings of guilt, self-abomination and neglect . On the other hand, a therapist assists an individual with multiple disorders in finding stimuli for change. The core concept of the approach is the â€Å"skill† which is defined as â€Å"cognitive, emotional, and overt behavioral (or action) response repertoires together with their integration, which is necessary for effective performance† (Linehan, 1993, p. 329). The scholar described the four broad modules of skills: (1) mindfulness, (2) interpersonal effectiveness, (3) emotion regulation, and (4) distress tolerance.To proceed, the pioneer of this method listed three categories of skills training procedures: (1) skills acquisition, (2) skill strengthening, and (3) skill generalization. An introduction of new skills occurs at the first stage. At the further stages, a patient learns to manage the freshly acquired skills and project them onto the everyday environment. The Integrative Treatment Approach suggested by Najavits (2002) was designed specifically for treatin g PTSD and substance abuse. Therefore it is especially valuable for helping patients with multiple diagnoses. This therapeutic technique is a present-focused one so far as it helps patients to free themselves from the past traumatic experiences and enables them to practice in acquiring safety from trauma/PTSD and substance abuse.Being equally effective for single patients and groups of various backgrounds, Najavits’ methodology relies on the five principles. First, individuals with multiple disorders are stimulated to value safety as the main life goal in regard to relationships, thinking, behavior, and emotions. Second, they are guided into the integrated course of treatment, during which several dysfunctions are seen to at once. Third, individuals are helped in designing ideals to balance against the loss of ideals resulting in PTSD and substance abuse. Fourth, a range of exercises includes cognitive, behavioral, interpersonal, case management practice. Finally, the method heavily relies on clinicians’ activities.